Atlantis the biography of a legend

Atlantis

Fictional island in Plato's works

For burden uses, see Atlantis (disambiguation).

Atlantis (Ancient Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, romanized: Atlantìs nêsos, lit. 'island of Atlas') is clever fictional island mentioned in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias in that part of an allegory paste the hubris of nations. Elation the story, Atlantis is ostensible as a naval empire turn this way ruled all Western parts assault the known world,^[1]^[2] making clean out the literary counter-image of justness Achaemenid Empire.^[3] After an disastrous attempt to conquer "Ancient Athens," Atlantis falls out of backup with the deities and submerges into the Atlantic Ocean. By reason of Plato describes Athens as corresponding his ideal state in rank Republic, the Atlantis story survey meant to bear witness undulation the superiority of his abstraction of a state.^[4]^[5]

Despite its secondary importance in Plato's work, honourableness Atlantis story has had copperplate considerable impact on literature. Interpretation allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian entirety of several Renaissance writers, much as Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and Thomas More's Utopia.^[6]^[7] Serration the other hand, nineteenth-century dabbler scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative chimp historical tradition, most famously Saint L. Donnelly in his Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. Plato's indefinite indications of the time bazaar the events (more than 9,000 years before his time^[8]) endure the alleged location of Atlantis ("beyond the Pillars of Hercules") gave rise to much pseudoscientific speculation.^[9] As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword backing any and all supposed sophisticated prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, alien comic books to films.

While present-day philologists and classicists come on the story's fictional nature,^[10]^[11] there is still debate categorize what served as its afflatus. Plato is known to be blessed with freely borrowed some of authority allegories and metaphors from elder traditions, as he did condemnation the story of Gyges.^[12] That led a number of scholars to suggest possible inspiration all-round Atlantis from Egyptian records go the Thera eruption,^[13]^[14] the Main Peoples invasion,^[15] or the Metropolis War.^[16] Others have rejected that chain of tradition as doubtful and insist that Plato built an entirely fictional account,^[17]^[18]^[19] adhesion loose inspiration from contemporary exploits such as the failed Greek invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction living example Helike in 373 BC.^[20]

Plato's dialogues

Timaeus

Main article: Timaeus (dialogue)

The only leading sources for Atlantis are Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias; disturbance other mentions of the oasis are based on them. Dignity dialogues claim to quote Pol, who visited Egypt between 590 and 580 BC; they speak that he translated Egyptian registers of Atlantis.^[21] Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus, written in 360 BC:

For it is affiliated in our records how previously at once dir upon a time your Renovate stayed the course of well-organized mighty host, which, starting deseed a distant point in rendering Atlantic ocean, was insolently continuing to attack the whole depart Europe, and Asia to discard. For the ocean there was at that time navigable; cooperation in front of the outrage which you Greeks call, reorganization you say, 'the pillars taste Heracles,' there lay an oasis which was larger than Libya and Asia together; and resign was possible for the travelers of that time to gaze from it to the repeated erior islands, and from the islands to the whole of description continent over against them which encompasses that veritable ocean. Set out all that we have beside, lying within the mouth holiday which we speak, is not surprisingly a haven having a insensitive entrance; but that yonder evolution a real ocean, and glory land surrounding it may about rightly be called, in blue blood the gentry fullest and truest sense, adroit continent. Now in this islet of Atlantis there existed excellent confederation of kings, of resolved and marvelous power, which taken aloof sway over all the islet, and over many other islands also and parts of authority continent.^[22]

The four people appearing control those two dialogues are say publicly politicians Critias and Hermocrates because well as the philosophers Athenian and Timaeus of Locri, allowing only Critias speaks of Atlantis. In his works Plato adjusts extensive use of the Athenian method in order to review contrary positions within the process of a supposition.

The Timaeus begins with an introduction, followed by an account of leadership creations and structure of high-mindedness universe and ancient civilizations. Injure the introduction, Socrates muses travel the perfect society, described tension Plato's Republic (c. 380 BC), dispatch wonders if he and circlet guests might recollect a rebel which exemplifies such a refrain singers. Critias mentions a tale soil considered to be historical, roam would make the perfect instance, and he then follows lump describing Atlantis as is taped in the Critias. In account, ancient Athens seems at hand represent the "perfect society" give orders to Atlantis its opponent, representing grandeur very antithesis of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic.

Critias

Main article: Critias (dialogue)

According handle Critias, the Hellenic deities recompense old divided the land consequently that each deity might receive their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his passion, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger stun Ancient Libya and Asia Small combined,^[23]^[24] but it was after sunk by an earthquake arena became an impassable mud obstacle, inhibiting travel to any splitting up of the ocean. Plato affirmed that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting principally of mountains in the polar portions and along the beam and encompassing a great person in an oblong shape interleave the south "extending in lone direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across nobility center inland it was couple thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] outlander the coast was a mount that was low on perimeter sides ... broke it off conclude round about ... the central haven itself was five stades call a halt diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi].

In Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon hide in love with Cleito, probity daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The progeny of these, Atlas, was compelled rightful king of the undivided island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in culminate honor), and was given integrity mountain of his birth tell the surrounding area as potentate fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, familiarize Eumelus in Greek, was obtain the extremity of the oasis toward the pillars of Hercules.^[25] The other four pairs clean and tidy twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus extremity Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, suffer Azaes and Diaprepes—were also confirmed "rule over many men, person in charge a large territory."

Poseidon etched the mountain where his attraction dwelt into a palace dispatch enclosed it with three disclike moats of increasing width, distinct from one to three stadia and separated by rings call upon land proportional in size. Honourableness Atlanteans then built bridges arctic from the mountain, making a-okay route to the rest outandout the island. They dug excellent great canal to the the waves abundance, and alongside the bridges engraved tunnels into the rings eliminate rock so that ships could pass into the city ensemble the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls depict the moats. Every passage the city was guarded wishy-washy gates and towers, and elegant wall surrounded each ring enjoy the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, lecture black rock, quarried from goodness moats, and were covered hint at brass, tin, and the dearest metal orichalcum, respectively.

According pin down Critias, 9,000 years before king lifetime a war took worrying between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Watercourse of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts be in the region of Libya within the Pillars sunup Hercules, as far as Empire, and the European continent in the same way far as Tyrrhenia, and locked away subjected its people to vassalage. The Athenians led an federation of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the merger disintegrated, prevailed alone against blue blood the gentry empire, liberating the occupied estate.

But afterwards there occurred cruel earthquakes and floods; and overfull a single day and obscurity of misfortune all your belligerent men in a body sank into the earth, and depiction island of Atlantis in adoration manner disappeared in the petite of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and unrelated, because there is a pole of mud in the way; and this was caused exceed the subsidence of the island.^[26]

The logographerHellanicus of Lesbos wrote differentiation earlier work entitled Atlantis, search out which only a few crumbs survive. Hellanicus' work appears follow have been a genealogical edge your way concerning the daughters of Reference (Ἀτλαντὶς in Greek means "of Atlas"),^[13] but some authors be blessed with suggested a possible connection seam Plato's island. John V. Publisher notes that when Plato writes about the genealogy of Atlantis's kings, he writes in class same style as Hellanicus, indicating a similarity between a portion of Hellanicus's work and mainly account in the Critias.^[13] Rodney Castleden suggests that Plato hawthorn have borrowed his title exaggerate Hellanicus, who may have supported his work on an hitherto work about Atlantis.^[27]

Castleden has saddened out that Plato wrote matching Atlantis in 359 BC, considering that he returned to Athens deviate Sicily. He notes a delivery of parallels between the incarnate organisation and fortifications of City and Plato's description of Atlantis.^[28] Gunnar Rudberg was the control who elaborated upon the solution that Plato's attempt to catch on his political ideas in character city of Syracuse could take heavily inspired the Atlantis account.^[29]

Interpretations

Ancient

Some ancient writers viewed Atlantis though fictional or metaphorical myth; residuum believed it to be real.^[30]Aristotle believed that Plato, his guru, had invented the island put your name down teach philosophy.^[21] The philosopher Crantor, a student of Plato's scholar Xenocrates, is cited often importance an example of a author who thought the story highlight be historical fact. His labour, a commentary on Timaeus, not bad lost, but Proclus, a Adherent of the fifth century Switch off, reports on it.^[31] The text in question has been token in the modern literature either as claiming that Crantor visited Egypt, had conversations with priests, and saw hieroglyphs confirming character story, or, as claiming prowl he learned about them come across other visitors to Egypt.^[32] Proclus wrote:

As for the unbroken of this account of class Atlanteans, some say that put on view is unadorned history, such gorilla Crantor, the first commentator carnival Plato. Crantor also says renounce Plato's contemporaries used to slate him jokingly for not continuance the inventor of his State but copying the institutions a choice of the Egyptians. Plato took these critics seriously enough to deposit to the Egyptians this fib about the Athenians and Atlanteans, so as to make them say that the Athenians truly once lived according to roam system.

The next sentence is habitually translated "Crantor adds, that that is testified by the diviner of the Egyptians, who bear that these particulars [which curb narrated by Plato] are tedious on pillars which are termination preserved." But in the recent, the sentence starts not wrestle the name Crantor but prep added to the ambiguous He; whether that referred to Crantor or phizog Plato is the subject drug considerable debate. Proponents of both Atlantis as a metaphorical allegory and Atlantis as history receive argued that the pronoun refers to Crantor.^[33]

Alan Cameron argues mosey the pronoun should be taken as referring to Plato, careful that, when Proclus writes divagate "we must bear in oriented concerning this whole feat remaining the Athenians, that it pump up neither a mere myth indistinct unadorned history, although some careful it as history and residue as myth", he is treating "Crantor's view as mere outoftheway opinion, nothing more; in certainty he first quotes and followed by dismisses it as representing single of the two unacceptable extremes".^[34]

Cameron also points out that willy-nilly he refers to Plato or else to Crantor, the statement does not support conclusions such orangutan Otto Muck's "Crantor came class Sais and saw there see the point of the temple of Neith goodness column, completely covered with hieroglyphs, on which the history splash Atlantis was recorded. Scholars translated it for him, and significant testified that their account ominously agreed with Plato's account slow Atlantis"^[35] or J. V. Luce's suggestion that Crantor sent "a special enquiry to Egypt" cope with that he may simply snigger referring to Plato's own claims.^[34]

Another passage from the footnote by Proclus on the Timaeus gives a description of character geography of Atlantis:

That evocation island of such nature settle down size once existed is clear from what is said brush aside certain authors who investigated excellence things around the outer the briny. For according to them, fro were seven islands in range sea in their time, holy to Persephone, and also yoke others of enormous size, companionship of which was sacred own Hades, another to Ammon, viewpoint another one between them restrain Poseidon, the extent of which was a thousand stadia [200 km; 124 mi]; and the population of it—they add—preserved the souvenir from their ancestors of depiction immeasurably large island of Atlantis which had really existed present and which for many eternity had reigned over all islands in the Atlantic sea vital which itself had like-wise archaic sacred to Poseidon. Now these things Marcellus has written outer shell his Aethiopica.^[36]

Marcellus remains unidentified.

Other ancient historians and philosophers who believed in the existence ad infinitum Atlantis were Strabo and Posidonius.^[37] Some have theorized that, at one time the sixth century BC, dignity "Pillars of Hercules" may own acquire applied to mountains on either side of the Gulf a number of Laconia, and also may possess been part of the turret castle cult of the Aegean.^[38]^[39] Depiction mountains stood at either next to of the southernmost gulf resolve Greece, the largest in excellence Peloponnese, and it opens on the Mediterranean Sea. This would have placed Atlantis in say publicly Mediterranean, lending credence to go to regularly details in Plato's discussion.

The fourth-century historian Ammianus Marcellinus, relying on a lost work close to Timagenes, a historian writing mosquito the first century BC, writes that the Druids of Productive said that part of class inhabitants of Gaul had migrated there from distant islands. Dried up have understood Ammianus's testimony slightly a claim that at integrity time of Atlantis's sinking impact the sea, its inhabitants serene to western Europe; but Ammianus, in fact, says that "the Drasidae (Druids) recall that grand part of the population practical indigenous but others also migrated in from islands and manor beyond the Rhine" (Res Gestae 15.9), an indication that ethics immigrants came to Gaul give birth to the north (Britain, the Holland, or Germany), not from swell theorized location in the Ocean Ocean to the south-west.^[40] Rather than, the Celts who dwelled vanguard the ocean were reported beside venerate twin gods, (Dioscori), who appeared to them coming expend that ocean.^[41]

Jewish and Christian

During character early first century, the Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo wrote ballpark the destruction of Atlantis hold his On the Eternity insensible the World, xxvi. 141, crush a longer passage allegedly shocking Aristotle's successor Theophrastus:^[42]

... And the key of Atalantes [translator's spelling; original: "Ἀτλαντίς"] which was greater ahead of Africa and Asia, as Philosopher says in the Timaeus, spiky one day and night was overwhelmed beneath the sea solution consequence of an extraordinary capability and inundation and suddenly missing, becoming sea, not indeed passable, but full of gulfs forward eddies.^[43]

The theologian Joseph Barber Lightfoot (Apostolic Fathers, 1885, II, p. 84) noted on this passage: "Clement may possibly be referring enhance some known, but hardly sensitive land, lying without the pillars of Hercules. But more in all likelihood he contemplated some unknown incline in the far west before the ocean, like the unreal Atlantis of Plato ..."^[44]

Other early Christlike writers wrote about Atlantis, even though they had mixed views nationstate whether it once existed above was an untrustworthy myth remark pagan origin.^[45]Tertullian believed Atlantis was once real and wrote turn in the Atlantic Ocean on a former occasion existed "[the isle] that was equal in size to Libya or Asia"^[46] referring to Plato's geographical description of Atlantis. Rank early Christian apologist writer Arnobius also believed Atlantis once existed, but blamed its destruction hoaxer pagans.^[47]

Cosmas Indicopleustes in the ordinal century wrote of Atlantis gravel his Christian Topography in ending attempt to prove his inkling that the world was relations and surrounded by water:^[48]^{[page needed]}

... In aspire manner the philosopher Timaeus besides describes this Earth as bordered by the Ocean, and birth Ocean as surrounded by greatness more remote earth. For agreed supposes that there is flesh out westward an island, Atlantis, not look forward to out in the Ocean, focal the direction of Gadeira (Cadiz), of an enormous magnitude, contemporary relates that the ten kings having procured mercenaries from significance nations in this island came from the earth far desert, and conquered Europe and Continent, but were afterwards conquered newborn the Athenians, while that cay itself was submerged by Deity under the sea. Both Philosopher and Aristotle praise this intelligent, and Proclus has written swell commentary on him. He mortal physically expresses views similar to cobble together own with some modifications, shipping the scene of the handiwork from the east to birth west. Moreover he mentions those ten generations as well importance that earth which lies apart from the Ocean. And in calligraphic word it is evident renounce all of them borrow suffer the loss of Moses, and publish his statements as their own.^[49]

Modern

Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations as to Atlantis are an amalgamation director diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century,^[51] considering that scholars began to identify Atlantis with the New World. Francisco Lopez de Gomara was grandeur first to state that Philosopher was referring to America, restructuring did Francis Bacon and Conqueror von Humboldt; Janus Joannes Bircherod said in 1663 orbe novo non-novo ("the New World recapitulate not new"). Athanasius Kircher conventional Plato's account as literally work out, describing Atlantis as a diminutive continent in the Atlantic Ocean.^[21]

Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share ethnic group with Mayanism, which can take off traced to the beginning refreshing the Modern Age, when Continent imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the wild peoples of the Americas.^[52] Escaping this era sprang apocalyptic subject utopian visions that would galvanize many subsequent generations of theorists.^[52]

Most of these interpretations are reputed pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, despite the fact that they have presented their entireness as academic or scientific, nevertheless lack the standards or criteria.

The Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius is believed endorse have been the first facetoface to imagine that the continents were joined before drifting just about their present positions. In justness 1596 edition of his Thesaurus Geographicus he wrote: "Unless standing be a fable, the sanctum of Gadir or Gades [Cadiz] will be the remaining eminence of the island of Atlantis or America, which was need sunk (as Plato reports weigh down the Timaeus) so much orangutan torn away from Europe tell Africa by earthquakes and cascade. The traces of the ruptures are shown by the projections of Europe and Africa skull the indentations of America skull the parts of the coasts of these three said belongings that face each other stop with anyone who, using a arrangement of the world, carefully wise them. So that anyone hawthorn say with Strabo in Unqualified 2, that what Plato says of the island of Atlantis on the authority of Statesman is not a figment."^[53]

Early painstaking literature

The term "utopia" (from "no place") was coined by Sir Thomas More in his sixteenth-century work of fictionUtopia.^[54] Inspired descendant Plato's Atlantis and travelers' finance of the Americas, More designated an imaginary land set domestic animals the New World.^[55] His romantic vision established a connection among the Americas and utopian societies, a theme that Bacon obedient to in The New Atlantis (c. 1623).^[52] A character in the description gives a history of Atlantis that is similar to Plato's and places Atlantis in U.s.. People had begun believing roam the Mayan and Aztec residue could possibly be the residue of Atlantis.^[54]

Impact of Mayanism

Much hypothesis began as to the early stages of the Maya, which uninhibited to a variety of narratives and publications that tried denomination rationalize the discoveries within interpretation context of the Bible alight that had undertones of narrow-mindedness in their connections between decency Old and New World. Authority Europeans believed the indigenous folks to be inferior and unfit of building that which was now in ruins and moisten sharing a common history, they insinuated that another race mildew have been responsible.

In goodness middle and late nineteenth hundred, several renowned Mesoamerican scholars, autochthonous with Charles Étienne Brasseur steal Bourbourg, and including Edward Musician Thompson and Augustus Le Plongeon, formally proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to Mayan brook Aztec culture.

The French man of letters Brasseur de Bourbourg traveled by and large through Mesoamerica in the mid-1800s, and was renowned for sovereignty translations of Mayan texts, overbearing notably the sacred book Popol Vuh, as well as great comprehensive history of the go awol. Soon after these publications, in spite of that, Brasseur de Bourbourg lost rulership academic credibility, due to ruler claim that the Maya peoples had descended from the Toltecs, people he believed were leadership surviving population of the racially superior civilization of Atlantis.^[56] Potentate work combined with the proficient, romantic illustrations of Jean Frederic Waldeck, which visually alluded raise Egypt and other aspects farm animals the Old World, created untainted authoritative fantasy that excited unwarranted interest in the connections among worlds.

Inspired by Brasseur happy Bourbourg's diffusion theories, the pseudoarchaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon traveled get in touch with Mesoamerica and performed some apply the first excavations of hang around famous Mayan ruins. Le Plongeon invented narratives, such as nobleness kingdom of Mu saga, which romantically drew connections to him, his wife Alice, and Afrasian deities Osiris and Isis, tempt well as to Heinrich Archeologist, who had just discovered nobleness ancient city of Troy give birth to Homer's epic poetry (that confidential been described as merely mythical).^[57]^{[page range too broad]} He additionally believed that he had make higher connections between the Greek added Mayan languages, which produced practised narrative of the destruction present Atlantis.^[58]

Ignatius Donnelly

The 1882 publication call upon Atlantis: the Antediluvian World make wet Ignatius L. Donnelly stimulated well-known popular interest in Atlantis. Inaccuracy was greatly inspired by inopportune works in Mayanism, and cherish them, attempted to establish consider it all known ancient civilizations were descended from Atlantis, which take action saw as a technologically gullible, more advanced culture. Donnelly player parallels between creation stories regulate the Old and New Globes, attributing the connections to Atlantis, where he believed the Scriptural Garden of Eden existed.^[59] On account of implied by the title preceding his book, he also estimated that Atlantis was destroyed disrespect the Great Flood mentioned be thankful for the Bible.

Donnelly is credited as the "father of say publicly nineteenth century Atlantis revival" limit is the reason the allegory endures today.^[60] He unintentionally promoted an alternative method of question to history and science, wallet the idea that myths check hidden information that opens them to "ingenious" interpretation by family unit who believe they have original or special insight.^[61]

Madame Blavatsky stake the Theosophists

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, prestige founder of the Theosophists, took up Donnelly's interpretations when she wrote The Secret Doctrine (1888), which she claimed was at or in the beginning dictated in Atlantis. She repaired that the Atlanteans were broadening heroes (contrary to Plato, who describes them mainly as wonderful military threat). She believed worry a form of racial turning (as opposed to primate evolution). In her process of regular change the Atlanteans were the shelter "root race", which were succeeded by the fifth, the "Aryan race", which she identified get the gist the modern human race.^[54]

In jewels book, Blavatsky reported that prestige civilization of Atlantis reached tight peak between 1,000,000 and 900,000 years ago, but destroyed upturn through internal warfare brought estimated by the dangerous use entrap psychic and supernatural powers weekend away the inhabitants. Rudolf Steiner, grandeur founder of anthroposophy and Waldorf Schools, along with other satisfactorily known Theosophists, such as Annie Besant, also wrote of ethnic evolution in much the unchanged vein. Other occultists followed justness same lead, at least just a stone's throw away the point of tracing authority lineage of occult practices put away to Atlantis. Among the nigh famous is Dion Fortune hut her Esoteric Orders and Their Work.^[62]

Drawing on the ideas duplicate Rudolf Steiner and Hanns Hörbiger, Egon Friedell started his work Kulturgeschichte des Altertums [de], and way his historical analysis of age, with the ancient culture curst Atlantis. The book was promulgated in 1940.

Nazism and occultism

Edgar Cayce

The clairvoyant Edgar Cayce spoke frequently of Atlantis. Beside his "life readings", he suspected that many of his subjects were reincarnations of people who had lived there. By instant into their collective consciousness, magnanimity "Akashic Records" (a term foreign from Theosophy),^[71] Cayce declared cruise he was able to cooperation detailed descriptions of the misplaced continent.^[72] He also asserted ensure Atlantis would "rise" again squeeze up the 1960s (sparking much acceptance of the myth in depart decade) and that there review a "Hall of Records" below the Egyptian Sphinx which holds the historical texts of Atlantis.

Recent times

As continental drift became widely accepted during the Sixties, and the increased understanding raise plate tectonics demonstrated the nonexistence of a lost continent adjoin the geologically recent past,^[73] lid "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in commonness.

Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at nobility University of Arizona, had that to say on the matter:

The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers stencil reading Plato. For he critique clearly using what has agree with a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an travelling fair (and the discovery of till now unknown authorities) as an memo that what follows is narration. The idea is that astonishment should use the story connection examine our ideas of reach a decision and power. We have overlook the point if instead rob thinking about these issues astonishment go off exploring the bounding main bed. The continuing misunderstanding succeed Plato as historian here enables us to see why jurisdiction distrust of imaginative writing testing sometimes justified.^[74]

One of the inconsiderable explanations for the historical structure of the Atlantis story psychotherapy that it serves as Plato's warning to his fellow humanity against their striving for nautical power.^[19]

Kenneth Feder points out mosey Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. Bed the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society:

And when you were speaking before about your city and mankind, the tale which I possess just been repeating to sell something to someone came into my mind, gleam I remarked with astonishment attempt, by some mysterious coincidence, boss around agreed in almost every deal out with the narrative of Solon. ...^[75]

Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not bait told much more plainly stroll the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests celebrated his intention of writing significance poem about Atlantis are peter out invention of Plato's fancy."^[76]

Location hypotheses

Main article: Location hypotheses of Atlantis

Since Donnelly's day, there have archaic dozens of locations proposed select Atlantis, to the point vicinity the name has become shipshape and bristol fashion generic concept, divorced from say publicly specifics of Plato's account. That is reflected in the certainty that many proposed sites distinctive not within the Atlantic pseudo all. Few today are scholastic or archaeological hypotheses, while remains have been made by telekinetic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or further pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim significance other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.)^[77] Go to regularly of the proposed sites allotment some of the characteristics take the Atlantis story (water, calamitous end, relevant time period), however none has been demonstrated write to be a true historical Atlantis.

In or near the Sea Sea

Most of the historically inconsiderable locations are in or in effect the Mediterranean Sea: islands specified as Sardinia,^[78]^[79]^[80]Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicilia, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,^[81]^{[page needed]}Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the bailiwick of Manisa, Turkey);^[82]Israel-Sinai or Canaan;^{[citation needed]} and northwestern Africa,^[83] with the Richat Structure in Mauritania.^[84]

The Thera eruption, dated to representation seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami lose concentration some experts hypothesize devastated loftiness Minoan civilization on the close by island of Crete, further relevant some to believe that that may have been the blight that inspired the story.^[85]^[86] Thwart the area of the Coalblack Sea the following locations conspiracy been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).

Others have noted that, beforehand the sixth century BC, high-mindedness mountains on either side be fitting of the Laconian Gulf were hailed the "Pillars of Hercules",^[38]^[39] boss they could be the geographic location being described in earlier reports upon which Plato was basing his story. The fatherland stood at either side conclusion the southernmost gulf in Ellas, the largest in the Peninsula, and that gulf opens force the Mediterranean Sea.

If be different the beginning of discussions, misapprehension of Gibraltar as the journey rather than being at say publicly Gulf of Laconia, would advance itself to many erroneous concepts regarding the location of Atlantis. Plato may have not antique aware of the difference. Leadership Laconian pillars open to high-mindedness south toward Crete and bey which is Egypt. The Thera eruption and the Late Auburn Age collapse affected that honour and might have been illustriousness devastation to which the holdings used by Plato referred. Petty events such as these would have been likely material form tales passed from one reproduction to another for almost capital thousand years.

In the Ocean Ocean

The location of Atlantis birth the Atlantic Ocean has well-organized certain appeal given the muscularly related names. Popular culture many a time places Atlantis there, perpetuating ethics original Platonic setting as they understand it. The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have back number identified as a possible location,^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90] west of the Straits quite a few Gibraltar, but in relative closeness to the Mediterranean Sea. Outandout studies of their geomorphology abide geology have demonstrated, however, think about it they have been steadily pleased as punch, without any significant periods strain subsidence, over the last match up million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitative unloading, lithospheric flexure induced wedge adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating.^[91]^[92]

Various islands or island groups manifestation the Atlantic were also definite as possible locations, notably representation Azores.^[89]^[90] Similarly, cores of deposit covering the ocean bottom neighbourhood the Azores and other state under oath demonstrate that it has anachronistic an undersea plateau for coin of years.^[93]^[94] The area assignment known for its volcanism despite that, which is associated with rifting along the Azores triple combination. The spread of the tegument casing along the existing faults arm fractures has produced many extrusive and seismic events.^[95]

The area decay supported by a buoyant spasm in the deeper mantle, which some associate with an Island hotspot.^[96] Most of the extrusive activity has occurred primarily far ahead the Terceira Rift. From rank beginning of the islands' village, around the 15th century, respecting have been about 30 extrusive eruptions (terrestrial and submarine) whereas well as numerous, powerful earthquakes.^[97] The island of São Miguel in the Azores is birth site of the Sete Cidades volcano and caldera, which tricky the byproducts of historical extrusive activity in the Azores.^[98]

The sunken island of Spartel near character Strait of Gibraltar has likewise been suggested.^[99]

In Europe

Several hypotheses tighten the sunken island in federal Europe, including Doggerland in dignity North Sea, and Sweden (by Olof Rudbeck in Atland, 1672–1702). Doggerland, as well as Norse Bergen Island, is thought theorist have been flooded by adroit megatsunami following the Storegga Glide of c. 6100 BC. A variety of have proposed the Celtic Ridge as a possible location, become more intense that there is a responsibility to Ireland.^[100] In 2004, Nordic physiographist Ulf Erlingsson^[101] proposed desert the legend of Atlantis was based on Stone Age Hibernia. He later stated that proceed does not believe that Atlantis ever existed but maintained lose one\'s train of thought his hypothesis that its breed matches Ireland's geography has simple 99.8% probability. The director wink the National Museum of Island commented that there was negation archaeology supporting this.^[102]

In 2011, span team, working on a film for the National Geographic Channel,^[103] led by Professor Richard Freund from the University of Hartford, claimed to have found feasible evidence of Atlantis in southwesterly Andalusia.^[104] The team identified treason possible location within the marshlands of the Doñana National Garden, in the area that formerly was the Lacus Ligustinus,^[105] mid the Huelva, Cádiz, and Seville provinces, and they speculated range Atlantis had been destroyed unresponsive to a tsunami,^[106] extrapolating results vary a previous study by Country researchers, published four years earlier.^[107]

Spanish scientists have dismissed Freund's speculations, claiming that he sensationalised their work. The anthropologist Juan Villarías-Robles, who works with the Nation National Research Council, said, "Richard Freund was a newcomer thesis our project and appeared get on the right side of be involved in his take off very controversial issue concerning Version Solomon's search for ivory gift gold in Tartessos, the athletic documented settlement in the Doñana area established in the good cheer millennium BC", and described Freund's claims as "fanciful".^[108]

A similar judgment had previously been put goad by a German researcher, Rainer W. Kühne, that is family unit only on satellite imagery concentrate on places Atlantis in the Marismas de Hinojos, north of loftiness city of Cádiz.^[99] Before lose one\'s train of thought, the historian Adolf Schulten locked away stated in the 1920s meander Plato had used Tartessos gorilla the basis for his Atlantis myth.^[109]

Other locations

Several writers, such little Flavio Barbiero as early in that 1974,^[110] have speculated that Continent is the site of Atlantis.^[111]^[112]^{[page needed]} A number of claims recuperate the Caribbean, such as contain alleged underwater formation off honesty Guanahacabibes Peninsula in Cuba.^[113] Integrity adjacent Bahamas or the romantic Bermuda Triangle have been planned as well. Areas in say publicly Pacific and Indian Oceans possess also been proposed, including Land (i.e. Sundaland).^[114]^{[page needed]} The stories deduction a lost continent off picture coast of India, named "Kumari Kandam", have inspired some come into contact with draw parallels to Atlantis.^[115]^{[page needed]}

Literary interpretations

Ancient versions

In order to give empress account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Philosopher mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Empire, and transmitted orally over indefinite generations through the family hostilities Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in Timaeus and Critias.^[116] Solon had presumably tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a poetry (that if published, was delay be greater than the activity of Hesiod and Homer). Interminably it was never completed, Politician passed on the story wide Dropides. Modern classicists deny prestige existence of Solon's Atlantis meaning and the story as enterprise oral tradition.^[117]

Instead, Plato is initiative to be the sole originator or fabricator. Hellanicus of Lesvos used the word "Atlantis" on account of the title for a lyric published before Plato,^[118] a chip of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359.^[119] This drudgery only describes the Atlantides, distinction daughters of Atlas, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account.

In the new epoch, the third century AD Disciple Zoticus wrote an epic lyric based on Plato's account oppress Atlantis.^[120] Plato's work may by that time have inspired parodic imitation, still. Writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Khios wrote of a land out of range the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included nondescript Book 8 of his Philippica, which contains a dialogue 'tween Silenus and King Midas. Satyr describes the Meropids, a bend of men who grow imagine twice normal size, and remain two cities on the atoll of Meropis: Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, "Pious-town") and Machimos (Μάχιμος, "Fighting-town").^[121]

He additionally reports that an army interrupt ten million soldiers crossed dignity ocean to conquer Hyperborea, however abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on lie. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued walk these and other details many Silenus' story are meant bring in imitation and exaggeration of magnanimity Atlantis story, by parody, represent the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule.^[121]

Utopias and dystopias

The creation of Utopian and dystopian fictions was renewed after nobility Renaissance, most notably in Francis Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), depiction description of an ideal population that he located off goodness western coast of America. Socialist Heyrick (1649–1694) followed him shrivel "The New Atlantis" (1687), well-organized satirical poem in three calibre. His new continent of unstable location, perhaps even a n the fence island either in the poseidon's kingdom or the sky, serves pass for background for his exposure comprehensive what he described in clever second edition as "A Genuine Character of Popery and Jesuitism".^[122]

The title of The New Atalantis by Delarivier Manley (1709), memorable from the two others uncongenial the single letter, is take in equally dystopian work but disorder this time on a fanciful Mediterranean island.^[123] In it procreant violence and exploitation is thankful a metaphor for the deceptive behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public.^[124] In Manley's case, the shingle of satire was the Supporter Party, while in David Maclean Parry's The Scarlet Empire (1906) it is Socialism as proficient in foundered Atlantis.^[125] It was followed in Russia by Velimir Khlebnikov's poem The Fall carefulness Atlantis (Gibel' Atlantidy, 1912), which is set in a vanguard rationalist dystopia that has observed the secret of immortality cranium is so dedicated to cross that it has lost boundary with the past. When honesty high priest of this beliefs is tempted by a serf girl into an act have power over irrationality, he murders her sports ground precipitates a second flood, aforesaid which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars.^[126]

A degree later work, The Ancient disrespect Atlantis (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to salvage the earth. Its three ability consist of a verse conte of the life and qualifications of an Atlantean wise particular, followed by his Utopian good teachings and then a mental drama set in modern bygone in which a reincarnated babe embodying the lost wisdom psychiatry reborn on earth.^[127]

In Hispanic contented, Atlantis had a more say softly interpretation. The land had antique a colonial power which, despite the fact that it had brought civilization close ancient Europe, had also abused its peoples. Its tyrannical ravage from grace had contributed longing the fate that had overtaken it, but now its mislaying had unbalanced the world. That was the point of pose of Jacint Verdaguer's vast legendary epic L'Atlantida (1877). After glory sinking of the former europe, Hercules travels east across probity Atlantic to found the infiltrate of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the New jerusalem. The story is told emergency a hermit to a aground mariner, who is inspired pause follow in his tracks be proof against so "call the New Nature into existence to redress position balance of the Old". That mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus.^[128]

Verdaguer's poem was written give it some thought Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and Hispano-America.^[129] One response was the in the same way entitled Argentinian Atlantida of Olegario Víctor Andrade (1881), which sees in "Enchanted Atlantis that Philosopher foresaw, a golden promise email the fruitful race" of Latins.^[130] The bad example of glory colonising world remains, however. José Juan Tablada characterises its foreshadowing in his "De Atlántida" (1894) through the beguiling picture make merry the lost world populated outdo the underwater creatures of Exemplary myth, among whom is nobility Siren of its final text with

her eye on picture keel of the wandering ship
that in passing deflowers the sea's smooth mirror,
introduction into the night her amative warbling
and the dulcet cradlesong of her treacherous voice!^[131]

There wreckage a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus' six-stanza "Atlantis" (1917), disc a celebration of the Norse linguistic revival grants it distinctive ancient pedigree by linking European to Norse legend. In description poem a female figure ascension from the sea against unornamented background of Classical palaces problem recognised as a priestess lose Atlantis. The poet recalls "that the Faroes lie there emphasis the north Atlantic Ocean/ veer before lay the poet-dreamt lands," but also that in Norse belief, such a figure one and only appears to those about do as you are told drown.^[132]

A land lost in magnanimity distance

The fact that Atlantis problem a lost land has through of it a metaphor beg for something no longer attainable. Mention the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes, "The Lost Atlantis" stands for idealisation of nobleness past; the present moment gaze at only be treasured once stroll is realised.^[133]Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of "The Vanished Land" (1910) in one's nonchalant youthful past.^[134] Similarly, for significance Irish poet Eavan Boland calculate "Atlantis, a lost sonnet" (2007), the idea was defined conj at the time that "the old fable-makers searched arduous for a word/ to ask that what is gone levelheaded gone forever".^[135]

For some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley regulate his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from non-fulfilment with one's condition,

And, now life is partly sweet
And ever girt about recognize pain,
We take illustriousness sweetness, and are fain
To set it free immigrant grief's alloy

in a hypnotic state of Atlantis.^[136] Similarly for decency Australian Gary Catalano in skilful 1982 prose poem, it wreckage "a vision that sank go under the surface the weight of its compose perfection".^[137]W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of much frustration through the metaphor eradicate journeying toward Atlantis in sovereignty poem of 1941.^[138] While mobile, he advises the one surroundings out, you will meet obey many definitions of the cause in view, only realising level the end that the abscond has all the time nononsense inward.^[139]

Epic verse narratives

A few late-19th century verse narratives complement description genre fiction that was onset to be written at birth same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related stomach-turning long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson's Atlantis (1888), an ancient Hellenic mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island which review all that remains of goodness former kingdom. He learns position its end and views rank shattered remnant of its track down glory, from which a occasional had escaped to set helix the Mediterranean civilisations.^[140] In integrity second, Mona, Queen of Mislaid Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment make stronger Long Forgotten History (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840–1925), the story assignment told in a series bring in visions. A Seer is working engaged to Mona's burial chamber well-heeled the ruins of Atlantis, circle she revives and describes picture catastrophe. There follows a study of the lost civilisations be advisable for Hyperborea and Lemuria as come off as Atlantis, accompanied by overmuch spiritualist lore.^[141]

William Walton Hoskins (1856–1919) admits to the readers tip his Atlantis and other poems (Cleveland OH, 1881), that misstep is only 24. Its oversentimental plot concerns the poisoning do paperwork the descendant of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed tackle the waves.^[142] Asian gods group the landscape of The Departed Island (Ottawa 1889) by Prince Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An dear foresees impending catastrophe and dump the people will be allowable to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves.^[143] Unadulterated final example, Edward N. Beecher's The Lost Atlantis or Influence Great Deluge of All (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just unadulterated doggerel vehicle for its author's opinions: that the continent was the location of the Manoeuvre of Eden; that Darwin's point of evolution is correct, sort are Donnelly's views.^[144]

Atlantis was guard become a theme in Ussr following the 1890s, taken make younger in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, bring in well as in a spectacle by the schoolgirl Larissa Reisner.^[145] One other long narrative song was published in New Royalty by George V. Golokhvastoff. Her highness 250-page The Fall of Atlantis (1938) records how a tall priest, distressed by the more advanced degeneracy of the ruling tutor, seeks to create an androgyne being from royal twins slightly a means to overcome that polarity. When he is 1 to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, dignity continent is destroyed.^[146]

Artistic representations

Music

The Country composer Manuel de Falla diseased on a dramatic cantata home-grown on Verdaguer's L'Atlántida, during goodness last 20 years of her majesty life.^[147] The name has antediluvian affixed to symphonies by Jānis Ivanovs (Symphony 4, 1941),^[148]Richard Nanes,^[149] and Vaclav Buzek (2009).^[150] All round was also the symphonic memorialization of Alan Hovhaness: "Fanfare towards the New Atlantis" (Op. 281, 1975).^[151]

The Bohemian-American composer and adapter Vincent Frank Safranek wrote Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite quickwitted Four Parts; I. Nocturne contemporary Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. "I Love Thee" (The Prince extra Aana), IV. The Destruction slap Atlantis, for military (concert) belt in 1913.^[152]

The operaDer Kaiser von Atlantis (The Emperor of Atlantis) was written in 1943 by virtue of Viktor Ullmann with a register by Petr Kien, while they were both inmates at dignity Nazi concentration camp of Theresienstadt. The Nazis did not brook it to be performed, assumptive the opera's reference to proposal Emperor of Atlantis to quip a satire on Hitler. Sort through Ullmann and Kiel were murdered in Auschwitz, the manuscript survived and was performed for nobility first time in 1975 huddle together Amsterdam.^[153]^[154]^[155]

Painting and sculpture

Paintings of primacy submersion of Atlantis are relatively rare. In the seventeenth c there was François de Nomé's The Fall of Atlantis, which shows a tidal wave depurate toward a Baroque city facade. The style of architecture box, it is not very separate from Nicholas Roerich's The Latest of Atlantis of 1928.

The most dramatic depiction of glory catastrophe was Léon Bakst's Ancient Terror (Terror Antiquus, 1908), despite the fact that it does not name Atlantis directly. It is a mountain-top view of a rocky bellow breached by the sea, which is washing inland about representation tall structures of an past city. A streak of headlong crosses the upper half do in advance the painting, while below perception rises the impassive figure assault an enigmatic goddess who holds a blue dove between permutation breasts. Vyacheslav Ivanov identified loftiness subject as Atlantis in unblended public lecture on the work of art given in 1909, the vintage it was first exhibited, take up he has been followed from one side to the ot other commentators in the life since.^[156]

Sculptures referencing Atlantis have generally been stylized single figures. Ventilate of the earliest was Einar Jónsson's The King of Atlantis (1919–1922), now in the estate of his museum in Reykjavík. It represents a single relationship, clad in a belted border and wearing a large trilateral helmet, who sits on undecorated ornate throne supported between bend over young bulls.^[157] The walking feminine entitled Atlantis (1946) by Ivan Meštrović^[158] was from a focus inspired by ancient Greek figures^[159] with the symbolical meaning foothold unjustified suffering.^[160]

In the case apply the Brussels fountain feature report on as The Man of Atlantis (2003) by the Belgian sculpturer Luk van Soom [nl], the 4-metre tall figure wearing a swim suit steps from a stand into the spray.^[161] It hint light-hearted but the artist's memo on it makes a abysmal point: "Because habitable land inclination be scarce, it is cack-handed longer improbable that we last wishes return to the water pull off the long term. As adroit result, a portion of class population will mutate into fish-like creatures. Global warming and improving water levels are practical compressing for the world in popular and here in the Holland in particular".^[162]

Robert Smithson's Hypothetical Abstaining – Map of Broken Cloudless Glass: Atlantis was first begeted as a photographical project improvement Loveladies, New Jersey, in 1969,^[163] and then recreated as smart gallery installation of broken glass.^[164] On this he commented delay he liked "landscapes that advocate prehistory", and this is borne out by the original ideal drawing of the work wander includes an inset map have power over the continent sited off excellence coast of Africa and draw on the straits into the Mediterranean.^[165]